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PowerPoint Tips & Tricks

At a Bit Better, we happen to know a LOT about PowerPoint. So, from time to time, we post tips, and tricks to help you use PowerPoint to its fullest. For more on PowerPoint, check out our answers to frequently asked questions.
Power users might enjoy the list of keyboard shortcuts.
MIS managers might enjoy the list of system requirements
PowerPoint Presentations
The following are three presentations given by Cathy Belleville at the PowerPoint Extreme workshop of the Training 2000 conference in Atlanta on February 20, 2000. You may download these for your own education. Please install the Flash/Shockwave viewer before viewing these presentations. Download it from http://www.macromedia.com/shockwave/download/

A History of PowerPoint (603K)
A look at all of the PowerPoint versions, their features, and competitors. Open in Win ppt 97 or higher; Flash viewer required.

A Review of PowerPoint 2000 (1.3M)
A look at the features in PowerPoint 2000, plus a few tips and tricks from previous versions. Open in Win ppt 97 or higher; Flash viewer required.

Using Flash/Shockwave in PowerPoint (463K)
Flash/Shockwave files can be used in PowerPoint 97 and higher. This presentation shows you how, and also its features and limits. Open in Win ppt 97 or higher; Flash viewer required.
Tips & Tricks:
Save Your Fonts with Your PresentationSaving your Toolbar ConfigurationsDisplaying Keyboard Shortcuts in Tool TipsGetting Rid of Short MenusPreview Fonts in the toolbarMaking Auto-Fit Text Stop Auto-FittingGetting Rid of Tri-Pane ViewUsing Ctrl-Drag to CopyMaking Slides Print CorrectlyPreview Slide Show EffectsSetting the Default Text StyleUsing Different Backgrounds within one PresentationUsing More than One GuideUsing Guides to Measure Creating Pages with Slides and Descriptive TextMaking Presentation Files SmallerBuilding Presentations for Distribution to OthersEasily Changing from Caps to Lower Case or vice versaNudging Objects (moving objects one pixel at a time)Saving Across Multiple DiskettesSubliminal MessagesEditing DrawingsSoft ShadowsSelecting Small or Covered Objects

Save Your Fonts with Your Presentation
If you're preparing a presentation that you plan to distribute to others, be sure that you check this option by clicking on the Tools button in the File/Save As dialog box. This will work for most TrueType fonts on the Windows platform.
Saving Your Toolbar Configurations
If you like to customize your UI, move toolbars around, configure toolbars, etc, then you'll want to know that all this information is stored in c:\windows\application data\microsoft\powerpoint\ppt.pcb
By copying this file, you can move your customizations to other machines.
Displaying Keyboard Shortcuts in Tool Tips
If you'd like to see the available keyboard shortcuts for menus, commands, and toolbar buttons, go to Tools/Customize, click on the Options tab, and click on "show shortcut keys in screen tips".
Getting Rid of Short Menus
Forgetting user reaction to this feature when it was introduced in Word years ago, the Office team decided to try it again. Unfortunately, it's still annoying. To see all of your options when you click on menus, go to Tools/Customize, click on the Options tab, and uncheck "menus show recently used commands".
Preview Fonts in the Toolbar
If you'd like to see previews of the actual fonts in the font selection of the formatting toolbar, go to Tools/Customize, click on the Options tab, and click "List font names in their font", click Close.
Making Auto-Fit Text Stop Auto-Fitting
Turn this feature off by going to Tools/Options, click on the Edit tab, and uncheck "autofit text to text placeholder", click OK.
Getting Rid of Tri-Pane View
Unfortunately there is no way to permanently avoid this improvement, but you can quickly get rid of it by holding down the CTRL key when you click on the Slide View button.
Using Ctrl-Drag to Copy
You can quickly make a copy of any object by holding down the CTRL key while you drag on the object. You will then "drag off" a new copy.
Making Slides Print Correctly
PowerPoint has certain defaults to determine how it prints each object on the page. You can see over-ride these defaults. Go to View/Black and White; this will show you a gray-scale preview of how your slide will print. To change the print settings for any given object, right-click on it, then click "Black and White", and then choose the appropriate print option for that object. Master objects can be selected by going to the Master page View.
Preview Slide Show Effects
While editing a presentation, hold down the CTRL key while clicking the slide show view button; this will open a tiny preview window showing that slide in slide show mode.
Setting the Default Text Style
If you want to change the style of the text that appears when you type things that aren't the title or the slide body, do the following:Make sure no objects are selected.From the Format menu, select Font. Make all the changes that you want there, and click OK.From that point on, new text will be created in that style.
To Set the formatting for the title or slide body objects, go to the Slide Master and format these objects on the master.
Using Different Backgrounds within one Presentation
Users of PowerPoint 2000 and lower will only have two background designs automatically supplied with the Masters (counting both the Slide Master and the Title Master). However, you can have any design you want on any slide. From the Format menu, select Background. Check the box that says "omit background items" and this will make the slide ignore the Slide Master's design. You are now free to add whatever design you want to this slide. If you want to do this to many slides at once, go to the Slide Sorter, select the slides, and then use the Format menu command. Remember though that if you choose to do something like put a photographic background on many of your slides instead of doing it once on the Master, that your file size may increase dramatically.
PowerPoint 2002 supports multiple background masters.
Using More than One Guide
If you like using guides, but wish there were more, you can create additional Guides by simply holding down the CTRL key while dragging on an existing Guide. This will create a new guide. To get rid of guides, just drag them off the edge of the slide.
Using Guides to Measure
Make the Guides visible by using View/Guides. Then, hold down the SHIFT key while you click-and-hold a guide; the tooltip for the guide will display 0:00. As you move the guide, the distance the guide covers from the beginning of the drag will be displayed in the units of your ruler. In this way you can measure distances between objects, place guides at specific places, etc.
Creating Pages with Slides and Descriptive Text
If you want to create printable pages that have notes or descriptive text associated with each slide, PowerPoint has a feature designed to do just this called Notes Pages, or Speaker's Notes (depending on which version you're using). To view the Notes page for any slide, go to the View menu and select Notes Pages. You will see an image of your slide there, and a placeholder for adding your script, notes, or any other text you wish. You can cut-and-paste text from Word here if you like. To print these pages, bring up the Print dialog, and at the bottom of the dialog where it says "Print What:", select Notes Pages. These pages were originally designed to be used as audience hand outs (with space for the audience to take notes) but were also used by many as speaker's notes: the text block would have the script of the presentation, to be used by the speaker, or for sales binders to educated sales people.
Making Presentation Files Smaller
Prior to PowerPoint 97, there was no internal file compression code inside of PowerPoint, and files could get pretty big quickly. The most common cause of large files is the addition of large bitmaps. PowerPoint 97 compresses these bitmaps, but previous versions do not. To keep your presentations as small as you can, try reducing the resolution of your bitmaps, which will bring their size down tremendously. For viewing on screen, the bitmaps don't need to be more than 96 dpi; they won't print nicely until they're up around 150 or higher, but the screen always displays at 96 dpi, so if the primary viewing medium is the screen, there's no point in having the bitmaps be a higher resolution. Also, the bitmap format can make a big difference to your file sizes. JPEG and PNG both have good internal compression code. GIF has some, but not as good as JPEG. BMP files are the largest; TIFF files will also be very large.
Sometimes, as you're working on a presentation, you'll notice that the file seems to get bigger for no reason. To get rid of this "bloating", save the file using "File/Save As" and give the file a new name. This can reduce the file size up to 50%.
Building Presentations for Distribution to Others
If you're making a PowerPoint presentation that you intend to distribute to lots of different people, here are some important things to watch out for that will cause problems:
1. Stick with the fonts that come installed with Windows; Fancy fonts that appear on your machine will cause problems if everyone else doesn't have them.
2. Avoid embedding sounds and videos: these will not go from Mac to Windows gracefully, and you have to be very careful about how you insert the files in order to get them to "travel" properly. See the FAQ section for more information on this.
3. Try looking at the presentation on a different platform (Mac vs Windows); be prepared for some visual changes in your file--the version or platform may not support some of the features you've put in, so be sure to sanity check your file on several different machines and versions BEFORE you distribute it!
Easily Changing from Caps to Lower Case (or Vice Versa)
If you have text that is in the wrong case, select the text, and then click Shift+F3 until it changes to the case style that you like. Clicking Shift+F3 toggles the text case between ALL CAPS, lower case, and Initial Capital styles. You'll be surprised how often you use this once you get the hang of it!
Nudging Objects
You can use the arrow keys to move objects very small distances. This is a big win for those laptop users who no longer have mice. Select the object, then use your arrow keys. Each press of the key will move the object on "grid unit" (1/12th of an inch, don't ask why); if you hold down the ALT key while nudging, or if you have the grid turned off, you can move the objects one pixel at a time.
Saving Across Multiple Diskettes
From the File menu, select Pack and Go. This wizard will compress your PowerPoint presentation and copy the file onto as many floppies as are necessary. Be sure to format a bunch of floppies BEFORE you start the process, and make sure they are empty. This feature requires PowerPoint 95 or higher.
Subliminal Messages
These can be pretty hysterical in the right circumstances. Create a text object. With the text object selected, click on the Animation Effects button on the tool bar (the one that looks like a yellow star), and then click on the "flash once" button. Go to slide show and see the message quickly flash and then disappear.
Editing Drawings
Anything you draw with the pencil tool, you can edit. To get the object into "points mode", either double-click on the object, or select it then hit the Enter key. You will then see points at every vertex, which you can move. You can add points by holding down the shift key and clicking, you can subtract points by holding down the ALT key while clicking, and you can of course just drag points around.
Soft Shadows
You can create "soft" shadows for square or round objects that sit on a solid color background. Make a copy of the object, then change its fill to be shaded from black to the background color, with the shading set with black going from the center out to the background color at the edges. Make this object about 150% bigger than the original object, and put it behind the object. This will give you the effect of "soft" shadows.
Selecting Small Objects
Hit the ESCAPE key to insure that nothing is current selected, then repeatedly hit the TAB key, which will toggle you through a selection of all of the objects on a slide. This is useful for selecting very small objects, or objects that are covered up by other larger objects.
PowerPoint System Requirements
Mac PowerPoint 1.0Original Macintosh or betterSystem 1.0 or higher512K RAM

Mac PowerPoint 2.0Original Macintosh or betterSystem 4.1 or higher1 MB RAM
Windows PowerPoint 2.0286 PC or higherWindows 3.01 MB RAM
Mac PowerPoint 3.0Macintosh Plus or betterSystem 7 or higher4 MB RAM
Windows PowerPoint 3.0286 PC or higherWindows 3.12 MB RAM
Mac PowerPoint 4.068020 Mac or betterSystem 7 or higher8 MB RAM
Windows PowerPoint 4.0386 PC or higherWindows 3.18 MB RAM

Windows PowerPoint 95 (7.0)386 DX PC or higherWindows 956 MB RAM
Mac PowerPoint 98 (8.0)PowerPC or better16 MB RAM
Windows PowerPoint 97 (8.0)486 PC or higher8 MB RAM
Mac PowerPoint 2001(9.0)Power PC or better, at least 120 MHz48 MB RAM minimumMac OS 8.5 or higher
Windows PowerPoint 2000 (9.0)Pentium, 75 MHz+Windows 95 or higher20 MB RAM

Windows PowerPoint 2002 (10.0)Pentium III processorWindows 98 or higher40 MB Ram

Excel Tips & Tricks

Our Excel workbook is full of examples demonstrating all our Excel tips and techniques accompanied by a ten page notes explaining each tip and trick. None of our tips and tricks are trivial. For example, they don’t include such tips as keystroke short cuts. They are all intended for advanced Excel users. With these powerful, sophisticated, and esoteric tips and tricks, you can boost your office productivity significantly. Find out what you have been missing out on over many years of using Excel. This product requires Excel 2000 or higher.
Range Selection Techniques (17 Examples)Select a cell or range quickly without scrolling.
You want to select a specific number of cells in a row Starting from a particular cell in a row. When the task involves a large number of cells, it is not easy to figure what cell should be the last cell in the row. You will have to turn on the RIC1 reference style (Tools>Options>Views).For example, you need to select 75 cells from the cell C125. You turn on the R1C1 feature and figure the last (the 77th) column to select. Then you scroll down to C125 and across 75 cells to select the desired range. Lastly you turn off the reference style. What a chore! If you try to select the last filled (not just formatted) cell in a row where there are many filled cells interspersed by blank cells, then you will have more aggravation.With our tips, however, you will find these tasks a breeze. You don't have to do any scrolling. You don't have to turn on/off the reference style. It takes only a few quick keystrokes!We have 17 examples demonstrating this kind of techniques.
1) Select the last filled (not just formatted) cell in a row.2) Select the last filled (not just formatted) cell in a column.You have a long non-contiguous single column range made up of filled and unfilled cells and want to select the last filled cell without scrolling.3) Select the last filled cell in a worksheet.Do you want to select the last non-empty cell in your worksheet without scrolling?
The Excel's built-in method (Edit>Go To>Special>Last Cell) does not necessarily take you where you want. Press the F5 key and type "LC"* in the reference box and press the Enter key. As long as your last cell is not on the last row (65536), it will be selected in about 10 seconds. Although this method is a little slow compared to the built-in feature, it is always reliable.4) Select a blank column next to an existing one-column range.You have a long non-contiguous single column range made up of filled and unfilled cells and want to select a new blank range identical in size right to the filled range. You do not want to use the mouse to scroll all the way down and want to accomplish this task without using any macro or VBA code. 5) You want to select a particular number of cells, say 125 cells, across in a row beginning with the last filled cell in a row.You do not want to turn on the R1C1 reference style setting to count the number of columns.6) Select a range from a cell in a row to the last filled cell in the row.7) Select the last N, say 5 cells to the left of the last filled cell in a row.8) To select 10 cells to the right of the current cell in a row,9) To select the entire column containing the last filled cell in a row,10) Select a single row range from the active cell to a particular column, say the 15th column.11) Select a specific number of columns, say, ten columns from a current column, say the column C.12) Select a specific number of cells, say, 75 in a row from a particular cell, say C125.13) Select a specific number, say 120 cells to the right of a particular cell, H5.14) Select a specific number, say 10 columns to the right from a particular column, say the column H.15) Select a specific number, say 15 columns to the right from a particular column, say the 25th column.16) Select the cell with the maximum value in a given range, say a named range called "TestData".17) Two methods to select multiple named ranges.

Microsoft Word Tips and Tricks

How can I change settings, turn features off or on, and alter the way Word behaves?
Most of these settings are on the Tools menu. The Options command will display a screen that contains several tabs where you can make all sorts of changes that affect Word's behavior. The Customize command allows you to change Word's menus and toolbars. The View menu has some options for changing the appearance of the Word screen.
The rest of the answers in the Word Annoyances section and in the Word Screen section cover a number of the various ways you can customize Word and alter its behavior.
How do I get Word to stop helping me type?
There are several places to look to turn off Word's various automatic features:
1. Choose AutoCorrect (or AutoCorrect Options) from the Tools menu, then click on the AutoCorrect tab.
2. Clear the check boxes for the AutoCorrect items that you want to disable.
3. Do the same for the AutoFormat As You Type tab.
4. On the AutoText tab, clear the Show AutoComplete tip check box.
5. Choose Options from the Tools menu, then click on the tabs and clear any check boxes for features that you want to disable. For example:
· Edit tab (Tabs and backspace set left indent).
· Spelling & Grammar tab (Check spelling as you type and Check grammar as you type). When these features are on, spelling and grammar that Word does not recognize are underlined with wavy red and green lines.
How do I tell the Office Assistant to go away?
1. Click on the Office Assistant, then click on Options.
2. Clear the Use Office Assistant check box.
You can also customize the behavior of the Office Assistant by checking or clearing the checkboxes on the Options tab. If you want to learn how to customize the Office Assistant, but it's not currently visible, choose Show the Office Assistant from the Help menu.
How do I turn off the automatic URLs?
1. Choose AutoCorrect (or AutoCorrect Options) from the Tools menu.
2. Click on the AutoFormat As You Type tab.
3. Under Replace As You Type, clear the Internet and network paths with hyperlink check box.
If you didn't turn off AutoCorrect before you started typing and now you have a document full of hyperlinks that you don't want, you can turn them off, either one at a time, or all at once. To turn a link off, right-click on the link, select Hyperlink from the pop-up menu, and then select Remove Hyperlink. To remove all links from the document, choose Select All from the Edit menu or press Ctrl+A, and then press Ctrl+6 to remove all hyperlinks.
The toolbars and the menus in my old version of Word looked different. What happened?
The Standard and Formatting toolbars can share one row in later versions of Word, or they can be displayed on two rows, as in the older versions. Also, the menus can show a basic set of commands, with the recently used commands shown first, or you can show all commands.
1. Choose Customize from the Tools menu.
2. Click on the Options tab.
3. Use the check boxes to make your selections.
What are Word XP/2003 Task Panes?
The Word XP/2003 task panes appear on the right side of the screen, along with the document you are working on. The options on the task pane may change, depending on commands you have chosen. For example, some Word 2000 commands that displayed in dialog boxes now display in a task pane. If you don't want to use the task pane, you can hide it by clicking the X in the upper-right corner of the task pane. To turn it back on, select Task Pane from the View menu.
What's going on with the document windows when I have more than one file open?
New documents open in a separate window (in previous versions of Word, a new document took over the Word window). You can switch from one document to another by choosing a document from the list on the Window menu or by clicking the document's button on the Windows Taskbar. To view all open Word documents at the same time, choose Arrange All from the Window menu. You can also switch documents (or applications) by pressing Alt+Tab. To see more rows of buttons on the Windows Taskbar: Position the pointer on the inside edge of the Taskbar (the pointer becomes a two-headed arrow when it is in the correct position), then click and drag its border toward the center of the screen.
There are some other options on the Shortcut tab. You can specify the folder Word points to when it starts (this setting can also be changed another way (see How do I change the default folder for Open and Save?). You can program a shortcut key sequence (click in the Shortcut key box and press the key combination you want to use). In addition, you can set the window size Word uses by default (maximized, minimized, or normal) and you can choose a different Word icon (click the Change Icon button).
How can I find out the names of the buttons on the toolbars?
Hover the mouse over any button and its name will appear in a box near the mouse pointer.
How can I find out what the buttons on the toolbars do?
Choose What's This? from the Help menu. The mouse pointer will turn into a pointer with a "?" symbol. Click on any button (or any other element or object on the screen) and Word will give you some information. Also, Shift+F1 will turn on the What's This? feature.
Can I turn the Ruler off (or turn it back on)?
Choose Ruler from the View menu (if the Ruler is on, then you'll see a check next to Ruler).
How can I display more toolbars?
1. Choose Toolbars from the View menu.
2. Select the toolbar you want (an active toolbar has a check next to its name).
How do I move the toolbars?
1. Click on the left edge of the toolbar (the mouse pointer will turn into a four-headed pointer).
2. Drag the toolbar to any edge for a toolbar or anywhere else on the screen for a floating palette.
Can I add or remove buttons from the toolbars?
Yes! To add a button to a toolbar:
1. Choose Toolbars from the View menu.
2. Select Customize.
3. Click on the Commands tab.
4. Select an item under Categories.
5. Select an item from the list of Commands.
6. Drag the command to a toolbar. An "I" beam will appear to help you install the button. By default, the new button has only a text label.
7. Right-click on the new Toolbar item.
8. Select Default Style (the button will become a plain square).
9. Right click on the new Toolbar item again.
10. Choose Change Button Image, then select a button image.
11. Close the Customize dialog box.
To remove a button:
1. Choose Toolbars from the View menu.
2. Select Customize.
3. Drag the button you want to remove off of the toolbar.
Can I make my own toolbars?
Yes! To make your own toolbar:
1. Choose Toolbars from the View menu.
2. Select Customize.
3. Click on the Toolbars tab, then click on the New button.
4. Give the toolbar a name.
You can also choose to make this toolbar available to the Normal template (all documents) or the current document only. A small toolbar palette will appear on the screen. Click on the Commands tab, select a Category, then drag the commands you want onto your new toolbar.
Can I add or remove items from the menus?
Sure. To remove menu items:
1. Choose Toolbars from the View menu.
2. Select Customize.
3. Once the Customize dialog box is open you can drag unwanted items off of any of the menus.
To add a command to a menu:
1. Click on the Commands tab.
2. Select a Category, then drag the command you want onto any of the menus.
To restore a menu to its original setup, follow the steps above, but right-click on the menu you want to restore and select Reset.
What is the Normal Template?
The Normal template is the default template that is used when you start Microsoft Word or click the New Blank Document button. Some Word commands include an option to modify the Normal template (see How do I change the default margins? and How do I change the default document font?). If you modify the Normal template, all new documents you create will include those modifications. The Normal template file (Normal.dot) is stored in the Template folder (contained in the folder where you have installed Microsoft Office). If you delete the Normal template file, Word will create a new Normal template file with the standard document settings the next time it starts. For more information on Word Templates, see what are Templates? How do I use them? How do I make a template?
How do I control what happens when I start Word?
You can control the startup behavior in Word (and most Windows programs) by adding one or more switches to the command line that points to the executable file. For Word, this file is Winword.exe, found in the Program Files folder where you have installed Microsoft Office. To change Word's startup behavior, you have to locate a Word shortcut icon that points to Winword.exe. These icons may be found on your Programs menu, on your Desktop, on the Quick Launch toolbar on the Taskbar, or on the Office Shortcut Bar. Some Word shortcut icons cannot be modified using the procedure outlined below.
1. Click the shortcut icon using the right mouse button, click Properties, then click the Shortcut tab.
2. In Microsoft Windows NT, click the Word program icon, then click Properties on the File menu.
3. In the Target box or the Command Line box, you should see the path to Word. This path is usually "C:\Program Files\Microsoft Office\Office\Winword.exe", but this may be different in your installation.
4. At the end of the path, outside of the quotes, type one or more of the switches shown in the table below.
(no switch)
Start Word with a new blank document. If you start more instances of Word, they will all have the same list of documents on the Window menu.
/n
Start Word without a new blank document. If you start more instances of Word, they will all have their own list of documents on the Window menu.
/w
Start Word with a new blank document. If you start more instances of Word, they will all have their own list of documents on the Window menu.
/ttemplatename
Start Word with a new document based on a template other than the Normal template.
/a
Start Word and prevent add-ins and global templates (including the Normal template) from being loaded automatically. The /a switch also locks the setting files so that they cannot be read or modified.
/m
Start Word without running any AutoExec macros.
/mmacroname
Start Word and then run a specific macro. The /m switch also prevents Word from running any AutoExec macros.
How do I change the default margins?
1. Choose Page Setup from the File menu.
2. Click on the Margins tab.
3. Set the margins the way you want them, then click on Default. Word will inform you that this change will affect all documents based on the Normal template.
How do I change the default document font?
1. Choose Font from the Format menu, then set all of the attributes you want for your default font.
2. Click the Default button.
3. Word will inform you that this change will affect all documents based on the Normal template.
How do I change the default font for things like page numbers, headers, footers, footnotes, and endnotes?
These are all styles (see What are styles?). You can change the attributes of any style for the current document or for all documents based on the current template (see What are Templates?). If the current template is the Normal template and you select the Add to template option below, all of your ordinary new documents will reflect the style changes that you make.
Word 2000:
1. Choose Style from the Format menu.
2. In the List box, click All styles.
3. In the Styles box, click name of the style you want to change (the style names are fairly intuitive).
4. Click the Modify button.
5. Click Format, and then select the attribute of the style you want to modify (Font, Paragraph, etc.).
6. Make the desired changes.
7. Click OK.
8. Click the Add to template checkbox, if you want the modified style to be added to the template. If you don't check this box, the modified style will affect only the document you are working on.
9. Click OK.
Word XP/2003:
1. Choose Styles and Formatting from the Format menu.
2. In the task pane on the right side of the screen, choose All styles from the Show: list.
3. Right-click name of the style you want to change (the style names are fairly intuitive), then select Modify.
4. Click Format, and then select the attribute of the style you want to modify (Font, Paragraph, etc.).
5. Make the desired changes.
6. Click OK.
7. Click the Add to template checkbox, if you want the modified style to be added to the template. If you don't check this box, the modified style will affect only the document you are working on.
8. Click OK.
How do I change the default folder for Open and Save?
1. Choose Options from the Tools menu.
2. Click on the File Locations tab.
3. Click on Documents under File Types.
4. Click on the Modify button.
5. Use the Look in list to locate the folder you want to use from now on.
6. Click on the folder name, then click on OK to select that location.
7. Click on OK.
How do I change the default printer tray assignments?
Choose Page Setup from the File menu.
Click on the Paper Source tab.
Make your printer tray choices, then click the Default button to change default tray assignments.
Word will inform you that this change will affect all documents based on the Normal template.
If you make changes here without clicking the Default button, the changes are temporary and will revert back to the defaults after the current print job is completed. Printer settings are generally hierarchical. Your printer will respond first to settings made in Word, then the printer driver, then settings made on the printer itself. Problems with Word pulling paper from the wrong tray are often traced to the settings described above. If you still have problems, then check the settings in the printer control panel (click on the Start button, choose Settings, then open the Printers control panel). More advanced printers may also require programming changes on the printer controls located on the printer. Check your printer manual or online Help for more information.
How do I find Word's keyboard shortcuts?
Some keyboard shortcuts are listed next to the items in the main menu. You can also find them listed in Help (lookup "shortcuts" or "keyboard", then choose the "Keyboard Shortcuts" topic). The Help topics are grouped by function.
Microsoft Knowledge Base: WD2000: Keyboard Shortcuts for Microsoft Word 2000Microsoft Knowledge Base: WD2002 (XP): Keyboard Shortcuts for Microsoft Word 2002 (XP)
You can also print a list of all the keyboard shortcuts there are (10 pages of them, organized alphabetically by command name), Word has a built-in macro for this:
1. Choose Macro from the Tools menu, then choose Macros.
2. Select Word commands from the list in the Macros in box.
3. From the list in the Macro name box, choose ListCommands (you can type a lower-case "L" to jump to that section).
4. Click Run.
5. In the List Commands dialog box, click Current menu and keyboard settings.
6. The macro will run, generating a document in table form that you can print.
Note: If you made any changes to shortcut key assignments, the changes are included in the printed list of shortcut keys. Keys you have assigned to macros are not included.
Can I copy more than one block of text to the clipboard, then paste everything into my document?
Yes! This feature is called "Collect and Paste." Just copy up to 12 blocks of text (24 blocks in Word XP/2003), then, when you're ready to paste use the Clipboard toolbar in Word 2000 or the task pane on the right side of the screen in Word XP/2003. You can paste everything at once, or individual items in different locations. Hover the mouse over the icons on the Clipboard toolbar or on the task pane on the right side of the screen to get a preview of the content.
What are styles? How do I use them?
A style is a set of formatting characteristics that you can apply to text in your document quickly. The Style list is that pulldown list on the Formatting toolbar, where it usually says Normal in a white box. You apply styles by selecting text, then choosing a style from the list. There will be a few there by default. You can create your own styles:
1. Select the text that contains the formatting you want to use for your style.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click inside the Style box.
3. Type over the existing style name to create the name for the new style, then press Enter.
You can set additional formatting characteristics for paragraph styles, such as the style for the next paragraph:
1. On the Format menu, click Style.
2. Click the style that has the settings you want to change.
3. Click Modify, and then select the options you want.
Styles travel with the document, unless you use the Modify option to copy them to other templates or the Normal template. Click here to download a Word document that includes more information about styles (this document also includes information about Templates and the AutoText features).
What is AutoText?
AutoText is a way to store and quickly insert text, graphics, fields, tables, bookmarks, and other items that you use frequently. Word comes with a library of AutoText entries (see the items listed under AutoText on the Insert menu or turn on the AutoText toolbar, then click on All Entries). You can create your own AutoText entries with either of the following methods.
Method 1:
1. Choose AutoCorrect or AutoCorrect Options from the Tools menu, then click on the AutoText tab.
2. Type the text of your new AutoText entry in the Enter AutoText entries here box, then click on Add.
3. Make sure the Show AutoComplete tip check box is checked.
4. Click OK.
Word will show a tip on the screen after you type the first 4 or 5 letters that match the AutoText entry. Press Enter to accept the entry or keep typing to ignore it. If AutoComplete is turned off, you can insert AutoText entries with the AutoText toolbar (see Method 2).
Method 2:
1. Turn on the AutoText toolbar (choose Toolbars from the View menu, then select AutoText).
2. Select the text you want for an AutoText entry, then click on the New button on the AutoText toolbar.
3. Make up a shortcut name for this entry.
4. To use the shortcut, type the shortcut, then immediately press F3.
Word stores custom AutoText entries on the local machine, so this feature may not be very useful in a student lab or other shared computer environment. Click here to download a Word document that includes more information about AutoText and how to use it (this document also includes information about Styles and Templates).
How can I track changes made to a document?
Word will allow an author (or a group of co-authors) to retain deleted text to be accepted or rejected once the document is finalized. With the feature activated, Word "red lines" text deleted from the original document so that is visible, but distinct from the surrounding text. A related feature, called Compare Documents, will highlight the differences between two versions of a document.
To activate Track Changes:
1. Complete your first draft and save it.
2. Choose Track Changes from the Tools menu, then choose Highlight Changes. Select the Track changes while editing checkbox.
3. As you make changes for your second draft, you'll see how Word displays the changed text.
To accept or reject changes:
1. Place the cursor at the beginning of the document that is showing tracked changes.
2. Choose Track Changes from the Tools menu, then select Accept or Reject Changes.
3. The Accept or Reject Changes tool allows you to find the tracked changes (click the Find button), then to accept or reject the found change. You can also choose to Accept All or Reject All of the changes.
This feature can be a bit tricky to use, especially if multiple authors are collaborating on a document. For multiple authors, you can also enable document protection with the tracked changes feature. This will allow reviewers to edit the document, but they will not be able to turn off Track Changes and they will not be able to accept or reject changes. To protect a document for tracked changes:
1. Complete your first draft and save it.
2. Choose Protect Document from the Tools menu.
3. Under Protect document for select the Tracked changes radio button.
4. Enter a password (you'll be prompted to confirm the password).
5. The Track Changes feature will be enabled automatically.
Don't forget the password. There is no way to unlock the document if you don't have the password!
Can I keep different versions of a document in the same file?
Yes. Word calls this "versioning". One file will contain all the versions and will increase the file size. You can also extract any version and save it as a separate file. To use the version options:
1. Choose Versions from the File menu.
2. Click the Save Now button to save the current state of the document. Word records the author and the time and date of the version. You can also add comments to distinguish each version.
If you check the Automatically save a version on close, Word will do just that. You can still use the Save Now option to save other versions of the document. To view your version history:
1. Choose Versions from the File menu.
2. Select a version then click on the Open button to view that version in a separate window.
3. To keep a particular version, use the Save As command on the File menu.
Will Word help me compare two similar documents?
Comparing documents is an option within the Track Changes command. When this command is activated, Word will compare a document you select with the document displayed in the document window, then combine the documents with the differences highlighted in the same way the Track Changes feature highlights edits (see How can I track changes made to a document?).To compare a document with the current document:
1. Save the current document (just in case).
2. Choose Track Changes from the Tools menu, then choose Compare Documents.
3. Word will combine the documents as described above.
4. Use the Accept or Reject Changes feature to finalize the document, as described in the How can I track changes made to a document? section.
Can I "Search and Replace" for things other than words?
Yes!
1. Choose Replace from the Edit menu.
2. Click on More. At the bottom of the Find and Replace dialog box, you'll see a Format button and a Special button. The Format button allows you to replace formatting (e.g., one font for another, bold for italics); the Special button allows you to replace special characters (e.g., paragraph marks, note reference marks). Also, you can use the contents of the Clipboard as the replacement. This is useful if you want to replace a short word or phrase with a longer phrase or paragraph. To use this feature, you must first create the replacement text somewhere, then copy it to the Clipboard. When you use the Special button as mentioned above, you'll see Clipboard Contents as one of the choices (or use ^c).
How can I diagnose formatting problems?
You can use the Show/Hide button ¶ on the Standard toolbar to display paragraph marks, spaces, tabs, and other normally invisible characters that are embedded in the text. To diagnose a paragraph formatting problem, click in the paragraph that is in question, then choose Paragraph from the Format menu to see all of the settings applied in that paragraph. If you select multiple paragraphs, then select the Paragraph command, the settings that are not the same in each selected paragraph will be blank.
Another option is the What's This? item on the Help menu:
1. Choose What's This? from the Help menu.
2. Click on the text you want to check. In Word 2000, a balloon will appear with some information about the formatting. In Word XP/2003, the information appears in the task pane on the right side of the screen.
To diagnose a font formatting problem, click on the text that is in question. The current font and font size are displayed on the Formatting toolbar, if it is displayed (see How can I display more toolbars?). You can also choose Font from the Format menu to see all of the settings applied to the characters where you clicked. Since different character formatting could conceivably be applied to adjoining characters, you may have to remove all of the font settings from a block of text that is causing problems, then redo it. If you select a block of text, then select the Font command, the settings that are not the same in each selected paragraph will be blank.
How do I clear the formatting in a paragraph or block of text?
To make a "clean start" with a block of text:
1. Select the block of text.
2. Choose Normal from the Style box.
See What are styles? How do I use them? for more information. Anything that doesn't go away will have to be reformatted with the appropriate character or paragraph formatting commands.
How do I insert a footnote or an endnote?
1. Place the cursor where you want the note reference mark, then choose Footnote (or Reference, then Footnote) from the Insert menu
2. Select the Footnote or Endnote radio button.Optional: Click the Options button to change the placement, number format, starting number, and section footnote settings.
3. Click OK An editing screen appears at the bottom of the page (Normal View) or the cursor moves to the bottom of the page (Print Layout view). Enter your note text, then click in the document to return to the note reference mark.
How do I delete a footnote or an endnote?
To delete a note, you work with the note reference mark, not the text in the note pane. Select the reference mark of the note you want to delete, then press the Delete key.
How do I move or copy a footnote or an endnote?
To move or copy a note, you work with the note reference mark, not the text in the note pane:
1. Select the reference mark of the note you want to move or copy.
2. Cut or copy the note reference mark.
3. Place the cursor at the new location and paste.
You can also "drag and drop" note reference marks.
How do I use headers and footers?
1. Choose Header and Footer from the View menu.
2. The Header editing window and the Header and Footer toolbar will appear.
3. Type the text for the header or footer (the text in a header or footer is formatted like any other text).
You can insert page numbers, the document's filename and path, and other codes into headers and footers (there are a number of options on the Header and Footer toolbar). The Switch Between Header and Footer button on the toolbar toggles the editing window between the header and the footer. The commands to control headers and footers are on the Page Setup dialog box (Page Setup on the File menu):
· Set the header and footer margins on the Margins tab.
· Set the other options on the Layout tab (different first page and odd and even). If you select either of the options on the Layout tab, then you can format the various headers individually and do things like remove the first page number, "mirror" the page numbers, etc. Headers and footers can be further controlled by formatting your document into multiple sections.
To format an existing header or footer:
· Double-click on it, if you are in Print View.
· In Normal View, choose Header and Footer from the View menu.
Change the page layout so that the first page has a different header (or no header):
· Choose Page Setup from the File menu.
· On the Layout tab, select Different first page under Headers and footers.
· Now, you can create a unique first page header or footer. If you view the header or footer on the first page, you'll see "First page header" or "First page footer" instead of "Header" or "Footer" at the top of the screen. The headers and footers of all following pages will be the same.
For a different header or footer on each page or section:
· Insert a Section Break at each point where you want the header or footer to change:
o Choose Break from the Insert menu, then select Next page under Section break types.
· Choose Header and Footer from the View menu.
· CRITICAL (and potentially confusing) step! Create headers and footers as usual, but disable the Same as previous button whenever you want to create a unique header or footer (the previous text will appear, but you can delete it and enter new text). You can move through the sections without closing the Header and Footer toolbar by clicking on the Show Next and Show Previous buttons. It's easy for this to go awry, with headers and footers changing or disappearing as you try to get different headers or footers in each section. You may find it easier to setup all of your document sections first, then go back through the document from the beginning and create your headers or footers. Be especially careful with the Same as previous setting, as described above. You can also use the "different first page" option within each section (see previous item).
How do I double-space my document?
1. Select the portion of the document that you want double-spaced. To select the whole document, choose Select All from the Edit menu or press Ctrl+A.
2. Choose Paragraph from the Format menu.
3. Click on the Indents and Spacing tab, then select a line spacing setting from the Line spacing list.
Note: If you have already inserted an extra blank line between paragraphs or blocks of text, you will have to delete the extra paragraph marks, unless you want that extra blank line. You can use the Show/Hide button ¶ on the Standard toolbar to display the paragraph marks.
How do I change the margins?
1. Choose Page Setup from the File menu.
2. Click on the Margins tab.
3. Enter numbers in the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes or use the arrows to scroll by tenths (Word uses the default measurement unit).
Note: Header and Footer are from the edge of the paper and will supersede Top and Bottom if the settings are greater.
How do I change the format of the number symbols in a numbered list without changing the rest of the text?
The character format of the number symbol in a numbered list item is contained in the paragraph character at the end of that item. If you just need to fix one or two numbered list symbols whose formatting somehow got changed:
1. Select the paragraph symbol at the end of a numbered list item (use the Show/Hide button ¶ on the Standard toolbar to display the paragraph marks).
2. Format the paragraph symbol (formatting applied here affects only the numbered list symbol).
To create a custom numbered list style, or to modify an existing list:
1. Select the list.
2. Choose Bullets and Numbering from the Format menu.
3. Click on the Numbered tab (the numbered list style you chose previously will be selected).
4. Click on the Customize button.
5. Click on the Font button. Any of the font attributes you apply here will affect only the number symbols in the selected list.
How do I make a numbered list that looks like an outline?
The Numbered List command will work with the Increase and Decrease Indent buttons to make a hierarchically structured list, but you have to type carefully (watch the tabs; no extra returns). Word calls this an Outline Numbered list. You can either type everything up against the left margin and format when you are done, or set the numbered list style first, then type. To create an Outline Numbered list:
1. Choose Bullets and Numbering from the Format menu.
2. Click on the Outline Numbered tab.
To format the list.
1. Click on the line or paragraph you want to move to the next level.
2. Click on the Increase Indent button to move an item to the next level.
3. Clicking on the Decrease Indent button to move an item to the previous level.
How do I put a horizontal line in my document that moves when I add new text?
One easy way to do this is to put a border on the paragraph (either a top border or a bottom border will work, just be aware of which paragraph you put the border in):
1. Place the cursor in the paragraph.
2. Choose Borders and Shading from the Format menu.
3. On the Borders tab, select a line style.
4. Click the buttons in the Preview area (you can choose top, bottom, left, or right borders).
You can also draw a graphic line with the Line tool:
1. Choose Toolbars from the View menu.
2. Select Drawing to display the Drawing toolbar (it usually appears at the bottom of the screen).Note: There is usually a Drawing button on the Standard toolbar that will display the Drawing toolbar.
3. Click on the Line tool to activate it.
4. Click and drag in your document to draw the line.Hold the Shift key while you drag to draw a perfectly straight, horizontal line.
It's best to add graphic elements after you have completed the editing of your text, then you don't have to worry about them moving to undesired locations as you edit.
How do I number pages?
1. Choose Page Numbers from the Insert menu.
2. In the dialog box, select the Position and Alignment for your page numbers. The Format button allows you to choose different number formats, as well as control the page numbers in documents with multiple sections.
You can also insert page numbers by using the Headers and Footers command (See How do I use headers and footers?).
How do I delete page numbers?
Page numbers behave slightly differently, depending on whether you inserted them by using the Page Numbers command on the Insert menu or if you used the Insert Page Number button on the Headers and Footers toolbar.
1. Choose Header and Footer from the View menu.
2. Go to any header or footer (depending on where your page numbers are) and double-click on the page number to select it. If you used the Page Numbers command on the Insert menu, make sure you select the frame around the page number (it is similar to a graphic element).
3. Press the Delete or Backspace key to delete the page numbers throughout the document.
How do I remove the page number from the first page?
1. Choose Page Numbers from the Insert menu.
2. Clear the Show Numbers on First Page check box.
How do I insert or delete a page break?
1. Choose Break from the Insert menu.
2. Select the Page Break radio button. You can also insert a page break by pressing Ctrl+Enter.
To delete a page break:
1. Switch to Normal view (Normal on the View menu).Page breaks are identified on your document as dotted lines (page breaks you insert are identified as "Page Break".
2. Click at the left edge of the screen to select the page break.
3. Press the Delete key or click on the Cut button. You can also click below the page break, then press the Backspace key.
Note: You cannot delete the page breaks that Word calculates based on paper size, margins, and the general format of the document.
How do I keep a paragraph from separating at the page break?
1. Select the paragraph, then choose Paragraph from the Format menu.
2. Click on the Lines and Page Breaks tab
3. Check the Keep lines together check box.
How do I indent a paragraph?
1. Choose Paragraph from the Format menu.
2. Set Left and Right under Indentation.
Another way is to use the Ruler. If the Ruler is not visible, select View from the menu, then select Ruler. On the left edge of the ruler, you will see three symbols that look like an hourglass sitting on a box. Moving these symbols anywhere on the ruler affects the current paragraph or selection as follows:
· Moving the top triangle indents the first line of the paragraph (or the first line in every paragraph you have selected).
· Moving the bottom triangle indents all lines in the current paragraph (or all lines in all paragraphs you have selected) except the first line.
· Moving the square moves the "hourglass" and sets a normal indent (all lines in the current paragraph or selection will be left aligned).
How do I set tabs?
1. Place the cursor in the paragraph where you want to set the tab stop.
2. Choose Tabs from the Format menu.
3. In the Tab stop position box, enter a number (Word uses the default measurement unit).
4. Click the Set button.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 to set additional tab stops.
Remember: the number of tab characters in the paragraph must match the number of tab stops set in that paragraph. You can also set tabs by clicking in the Ruler. The default is usually set to a left-aligned tab; you can select other tab alignments by clicking on the button at the far left end of the Ruler.
How do I control where a column ends?
Word calculates where a column ends based on paper size, margins, and the general format of the document, but you can insert a column break at any point in the column which precedes the automatic column break. To insert a column break:
1. Switch to Print Layout view.
2. Click where you want to start the new column.
3. On the Insert menu, click Break
4. Click Column break. Word moves the text that follows the insertion point to the top of the next column.
Why are my columns not lined up when I print?
If you are asking this question, you have probably typed text then spaces in an attempt to make columns. This will only work if you use a "fixed-width" font (e.g., Courier). This method is not advised, and you are likely to have other problems, especially if you try to change the page margins. If you are trying to make a table, then use the Table command (see How do I create a table?). If you don't want a table, setting tabs may work (see How do I set tabs?).
Can I have different page formatting within one document?
You can use sections to vary the layout of a document within a page or between pages. Just insert section breaks to divide the document into sections, and then format each section the way you want. To create sections and section breaks:
1. Place the cursor where you want the section to begin.
2. Choose Break from the Insert menu.
3. Under Section break types, click the option that describes where you want the new section to begin.
Once you have sections defined, then commands that ordinarily would affect the whole document can be applied only to the current section. For example, the Page Setup command (on the File menu) has an Apply to: list the allows you to select This Section, This point forward, or Whole document.
How do I create a table?
1. Choose Insert from the Table menu.
2. Select Table to display the Insert Table dialog box.
3. Set the number of columns and rows under Table Size (you can also make other table format selections under AutoFit Behavior and by clicking on the AutoFormat button).
Use the other options on the Table menu to change the appearance of your table once it has been created. There is also an Insert Table button on the Standard toolbar that allows you to create a table by clicking and dragging through a grid to specify the number of rows and columns for the table. Click here to download a Word document that describes tables in more detail.
How do I create a Table of Contents?
Word has a feature that will generate a table of contents for your document. However, you must format your chapter or section headings with certain "heading styles" that Word uses to determine the text for the table of contents entry, as well as the page number where that section or chapter begins. To mark a chapter or section heading so it will appear in your table of contents:
1. Select the chapter or section heading.
2. Choose Heading 1 from the Styles list on the Formatting toolbar.For subheadings, choose Heading 2, Heading 3, etc.
When you have finished typing your document, you can generate your table of contents:
1. Place the cursor where you want to insert the table of contents.
2. Choose Index and Tables (or Reference, then Index and Tables) from the Insert menu
3. Select Table of Contents tab, then and select the style you want.
4. Choose OK to insert the table of contents into your document.
If you edit your document after creating the table of contents, you will have to update it:
1. Click to the left of the table of contents you want to update.
2. Press F9.
Note: When you update the table of contents, any text or formatting you added to the finished index or table is lost.
How do I create an Index?
Indexes can get complicated. It is recommended that you read through all of the information in Help about indexes, then decide how to proceed. Here are the steps for creating a simple index: Mark an index entry:
1. Select the text to mark as an index entry.
2. Choose Index and Tables (or Reference, then Index and Tables) from the Insert menu, then click the Index tab, or press Alt+Shift+X.
Mark the all index entries, then generate the index:
1. Place the cursor at location for the index (usually a new last page), then open the Index dialog box.
2. Click on OK to create the index.
If you edit your document after creating the index, you will have to update it:
1. Click to the left of the index you want to update.
2. Press F9.
Note: When you update the index, any text or formatting you added to the finished index or table is lost.
How do I switch between languages (proof text in different languages)?
Select the text you want to proof, then choose Language from the Tools menu. Select Set Language, then choose the language from the list. The Speller and other proofing tools use the dictionaries for the selected language, if they are available. If you click on the Default button, you can set the default language to the one you selected from the list. Word 2000 and XP come with dictionaries for English, Spanish, and French. Proofing tools for other languages can be obtained from a licensed reseller.
How do I tell the Speller to skip the parts of my document that are not in English?
1. Select the block of text you want the Speller to skip.
2. Choose Language from the Tools menu, then choose Set Language.
3. Check the Do not check spelling and grammar check box.
4. Click OK. When the Speller is finished, you'll see the message: The spelling and grammar check is complete. Text marked with "Do not check spelling and grammar" was skipped.
The Speller won't check my spelling. What happened?
If all or part of your document gets flagged as being in a language for which you do not have a dictionary installed, the Speller skips over those parts. Also, it appears that Word will sometimes flag documents created by other programs for "no proofing". If Word will not check your spelling, make sure the Speller is using the English dictionary and that none of the text is flagged for proofing in another language (or not at all):
1. Select the entire document
2. Choose Language from the Tools menu, then choose Set Language.
3. Select U.S. English.
4. Make sure the Do not check spelling and grammar check box is NOT checked.
5. Click OK.
How do I type the accented characters?
All of the accented characters can typed using a shortcut key combination or by using the symbol table (choose Symbol from the Insert menu, choose a font from the font list, then click on the character you want to insert). Memorizing the shortcuts for the ones you need is probably the best way. If you know the ASCII character codes, you can type the accented characters by typing Alt+0, then the ASCII code for the character. Note: To do this, press Ctrl and the second symbol together, let go, then type the letter.
Windows keyboard [jump to Macintosh keyboard]
à, è, ì, ò, ùÀ, È, Ì, Ò, Ù
Ctrl+` (accent grave), the letter
á, é, í, ó, ú, ýÁ, É, Í, Ó, Ú, Ý
Ctrl+' (apostrophe), the letter
â, ê, î, ô, ûÂ, Ê, Î, Ô, Û
Ctrl+Shift+^ (caret), the letter
ã, ñ, õÃ, Ñ, Õ
Ctrl+Shift+~ (tilde), the letter
ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, ÿÄ, Ë, Ï, Ö, Ü, Ÿ
Ctrl+Shift+: (colon), the letter
å, Å
Ctrl+Shift +@, a or A
æ, Æ
Ctrl+Shift +&, a or A
œ, Œ
Ctrl+Shift +&, o or O
ç, Ç
Ctrl+, (comma), c or C
ð, Ð
Ctrl+' (apostrophe), d or D
ø, Ø
Ctrl+/, o or O
¿
Alt+Ctrl+Shift+?
¡
Alt+Ctrl+Shift+!
ß
Ctrl+Shift+&, s
Macintosh keyboard
à, è, ì, ò, ùÀ, È, Ì, Ò, Ù
option+` (accent grave), the letter
á, é, í, ó, ú, ýÁ, É, Í, Ó, Ú, Ý
option+e, the letter
â, ê, î, ô, ûÂ, Ê, Î, Ô, Û
option+i, the letter
ã, ñ, õÃ, Ñ, Õ
option+n, the letter
ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, ÿÄ, Ë, Ï, Ö, Ü, Ÿ
option+u, the letter
å, Å
option+a, or option+shift+a
æ, Æ
option+' (apostrophe) or option+shift+' (apostrophe)
œ, Œ
option+q, or option+shift+q
ç, Ç
option+c, or option+shift+c
ø, Ø
option+o, or option+shift+o
¿
option+shift+?
¡
option+1
ß
option+s

Is there a faster way than the Thesaurus to find synonyms?
You can see a list of synonyms by right-clicking on a word, then choosing Synonyms from the menu. Unfortunately, some types of formatting disable this feature. For example, if the word is in a bullet or numbered list item, the synonym option does not appear when you right-click.
How do put a picture in my document?
To insert an image file into your document:
1. Choose Picture from the Insert menu.
a. Choose Clip Art for the built-in clips, locate a clip in one of the clip categories, click on the clip, then click on the first icon in the pop-up menu (this is the Insert Clip button). The Clip Gallery may seem confusing, especially if you used Clip Art in previous versions of Office. Once you are in Clip Art, you can press F1 for help on using the Clip Gallery.
b. To insert a file you have saved on your computer, Choose File, locate the file, then click Insert.
To change the flow of text around a graphic object:
1. Select the picture.
2. Choose Picture from the Format menu.
3. The Layout tab has several options; the other tabs (Colors and Lines, Size, and Picture) allow you to make some changes to the graphic object.
Another method is to simply copy a picture you have open in a graphics application, then paste it into your Word document.
How do I put a watermark in my document?
The Word Help on this topic is a little confusing. A watermark is a picture inserted in the header, then formatted so that it appears as a faint background image behind the text in the document. To insert a watermark:
1. Go to the Zoom box on the standard toolbar or the Zoom item on the View menu and reduce the view to 50% (this just makes things easier to see).OPTIONAL: If you only want the watermark on the first page, choose Page Setup from the File menu, then click on the Layout tab. Under Headers and Footers, check the Different first page checkbox.
2. Choose Headers and Footers from the View menu.
3. Insert the graphic for your watermark (see How do I put a picture in my document?).
4. The Picture toolbar should appear on your screen. If you don't see it, click once on the picture you just inserted. Your graphic must remain selected for the remaining steps.
5. On the Picture toolbar, click on the Image Control button, then select Watermark (this will make the graphic look washed out).OPTIONAL: You can convert the graphic to grayscale by selecting Grayscale on the Image Control menu. If you want to adjust the contrast or brightness, there are buttons on the Picture toolbar. If want to apply both the Watermark and the Grayscale attribute, you have to click OK to apply the first one, then go back into
6. CRUCIAL STEP: On the Picture toolbar, click on the Text Wrapping button and select Behind Text. If you don't do this, you get a big graphic in the header that doesn't work as a watermark (this step is not clear in the Word Help topic on watermarks).
7. Now, you can resize the graphic, drag it around on the page, or any other picture formatting you want to do.
8. Close the Header and Footer view by clicking on the Close button on the Header and Footer toolbar. If your graphic is not visible on the screen, choose Print Layout from the View menu. You can now edit your document as usual.
How do I put an Excel chart in my document?
The easiest way is to open the chart in Excel, copy it, then paste it into your Word document. You may have to resize the chart after you get it into Word. To resize the chart:
1. Choose Object from the Format menu.
2. The Format Object dialog box has Size tab.The Layout tab has options for setting the flow of text around the chart.
You can also insert the chart as a linked or embedded object. A linked chart stores the data in the original Excel worksheet. If you edit the spreadsheet, the changes are reflected in the linked chart in Word. An embedded chart is stored in the Word document. To create a linked or embedded chart:
1. Choose Object from the Insert menu.
2. Click the Create from File tab.
3. Enter the file name, or use the Browse button to locate the file. An embedded object is created if you don't check the Link to file check box.
When you create an embedded object from an existing Microsoft Excel workbook, the entire workbook is inserted into your document. The document displays only one worksheet at a time. To display a different worksheet, double-click the Microsoft Excel object, and then click a different worksheet.
What are templates? How do I use them? How do I make a template? How do I edit a template?
A template determines the overall structure of a document and can include text, graphics, styles, macros, etc. When you start a new document by clicking on the New button on the Standard toolbar, it is based on the Normal template (see What is the Normal Template?). To use the other templates included with Word:
1. Choose New from the File menu.
2. In Word 2000, click on the tab in the New dialog box to select a category. In Word XP/2003, the templates appear in the task pane on the right side of the screen.Note: Blank Document creates a document based on the Normal template.
3. Click once on a template or wizard icon to see a preview in the New dialog box.
4. Click OK to create a document based on the template you selected.
Note: Some templates (and wizards) that appear in the New dialog box may not be installed. Word will ask you for your install CD the first time you try to use one of them. To create your own template:
1. Create a "reusable" document.
2. Choose Save As from the File menu.
3. In the Save as type box, select Document Template (*.dot).
4. Click on the Save button. Word will automatically save the template in the Templates folder. It will appear on the General tab (where you see Blank Document).
You can also create a folder for your templates:
· After step 3 above, click on the New Folder button.
· The name you choose for your templates folder will appear as a tab in the New dialog box.
Editing templates: To edit an existing template, you have to locate the original template document. Templates are not usually stored with your other documents. To further complicate matters, the location of the templates folder varies. There can even be more than one location for storing templates. In addition, the location of the templates folder varies depending on whether or not your computer stores profile information for different users. In Windows 2000 and XP Professional, you probably have your own profile. One easy way to find where a particular template is stored is to use the Windows Find Files command (Start > Find > Files or Folders). Search for the file name, including the .dot extension. Once you locate the template, you can open it, make your changes, and save it again. Click here to download a Word document that includes more information about templates (this document also includes information about Styles and AutoText).
Can I use Word to make a "real" outline?
Yes, but it can be a bit confusing at first. If you have a casually formatted document that you want to turn into an outline, you will have to do a lot of reformatting. If you start a new document, then switch to Outline view (Outline on the View menu), you'll see the Outlining toolbar, which has tools for outlining (PowerPoint users will find this toolbar familiar). Another option is the Outline Numbered list. See How do I make a numbered list that looks like an outline? for more information.
What is Mail Merge? How do I perform a Mail Merge?
Mail Merge is used to create form letters, mailing labels, or envelopes. One document is the Data Document, which contains all of the names, addresses, or other variable information. This data is merged with the Main Document, resulting in a third document, which has as many sections as there are records in the Data Document.
Click here to download a Word document that includes a simple Mail Merge exercise using the Word 2000 Mail Merge Helper.
Note: Mail Merge in Word XP (2002) and Word 2003 has some important changes and new features. The most obvious include the new Mail Merge Wizard and a different method of data exchange, which affects the formatting of the fields in the merged document. Some helpful information on restoring the Mail Merge Helper and using the Word 2000 data exchange method appear at the end of this section, but if you are using Word 2003, you should read through all of the online Help topics on Mail Merge.
To create a set of merge documents, choose Mail Merge from the Tools menu (Word XP/2003 users: choose Letters and Mailings from the Tools menu first). This will start the Mail Merge Helper, which will guide you through the three-step process:
1. Create the Main Document (Form Letter, Mailing Label, or Envelope).
2. Specify a Data Source (create from scratch or use an existing document, which is usually a Word table or an Excel spreadsheet).
3. Merge the Data Source with the Main Document.
Note: Merge Documents is a command on the Tools menu that allows you to merge comments and changes from several reviewers into one document. This command is related to the Track Changes feature and has nothing to do with Mail Merge.
Note: Word XP and Word 2003 use a new feature called the Mail Merge Wizard to guide you through the merge process. If you want to try the Mail Merge Wizard in Word XP/2003, choose Mail Merge Wizard from the Letters and Mailings menu. The directions appear in the task pane on the right side of the screen. If you prefer the Word 2000 Mail Merge Helper, you can be add it to the Word XP/2003 Tools menu using the Customize feature.
Add the Mail Merge Helper to the Word XP/2003 Tools Menu
1. Choose Customize from the Tools menu.
2. In the Customize window, select the Commands tab.
3. Select All Commands from the Categories list on the left.
4. Select Mail Merge Helper on the right.
5. Drag Mail Merge Helper to the Tools menu (the Tools menu will open). Continue holding the mouse button and drag Mail Merge Helper to the Letters and Mailings menu item (the Letters and Mailings menu will open). Continue holding the mouse and drag Mail Merge Helper to the first position in the list of items.
6. Release the mouse button (Mail Merge will appear on the menu).
7. Click the Close button.
Add the Insert Merge Field Button to the Word XP/2003 Mail Merge Toolbar
1. Choose Toolbars from the View menu, then select Mail Merge to display the Mail Merge toolbar.
2. Choose Customize from the Tools menu.
3. In the Customize window, select the Commands tab.
4. Select Mail Merge from the Categories list on the left.
5. Select Insert Mail Merge Field on the right.
6. Drag Insert Mail Merge Field to the Mail Merge toolbar and position it to the left of the Insert Word Field button.
7. Release the mouse button (the Insert Merge Field button will appear on the toolbar).
8. If you don't need the Mail Merge toolbar now, choose Toolbars from the View menu, then select Mail Merge to hide the Mail Merge toolbar.
Note: The method of "data exchange" has changed in Word 2003 from older versions of Office. One detail that is different is that the formatting of data from an Excel spreadsheet is lost when documents are merged. One fix is to use formatting "switches" in the merge fields in the main document, which is somewhat confusing. An easier fix is to change the data exchange method back to Dynamic Data Exchange or DDE (the method used in previous versions of Office). This method will apply the formatting in the Excel worksheet to the fields in the merged document.
To make this change:
1. Choose Options from the Tools menu, then select the General tab.
2. Check the Confirm conversion at Open box.
3. Click OK.
4. When you select your Data Source document, Word will prompt you to Confirm Data Source. Choose MS Excel Worksheets via DDE (*.xls).
How can I combine several Word documents into a single document?
To combine several relatively simple documents into a single document, repeat the following procedure until all of the individual documents have been combined. The original documents are unaffected by this procedure.
1. Start a new, blank document.
2. Choose File from the Insert menu.
3. Browse to the document you want to insert.
4. Select the document, then click Insert.
5. Usually, you will want to insert a page break after each file you insert: Choose Break from the Insert menu, select Page break, then click OK.
Some attributes of the documents you insert after the first one may be lost (e.g., margins, headers, and footers). Once you get all the documents combined, you can work on finishing up document formatting details, page numbering, etc. If your individual documents are more complex, Word's Master- and Sub-document feature is what you need. This feature is too complex for coverage here, but Word's Online Help will get you started. See also: More Word Resources
Can I use Word to make a web page?
Yes. Word has a Save as Web Page command on the File menu. In addition, there is an Insert Hyperlink button on the Standard toolbar, as well as two additional toolbars for the web: Web and Web Tools. To activate these toolbars, choose Toolbars from the View menu. If you save a Word document as a web page, Word includes XML (Extensible Markup Language) tags, which enhances the format of the web page, but may cause problems with some web browsers (pages created with Word probably work best when viewed with the current version of Microsoft Internet Explorer).
You can download an HTML filter for Word 2000 that will allow you to Export as Compact HTML (compact HTML removes most of the XML tags). When you save a Word document as a web page, the formatting is converted into the appropriate HTML code (although some formatting will not be displayed on the web page exactly as it appeared in Word). Click here to download the HTML filter for Office 2000.
NOTE: The Save as HTML command in Word 97 creates much cleaner HTML than the later versions of Word. If you own a copy, you can install it along with a newer version on one machine: Just do a custom install of Word 97 and place it in a unique directory. If you run Word 97, the newer version of Word will quickly "reinstall" itself next time you start it.
How do I share a document with someone who doesn't have my version of Word?
1. Choose Save As from the File menu.
2. In the Save as type box, select the file type you want to use.
If you're not sure what file type will work (such as when you are sending a document to someone else) choose Rich Text Format (*.rtf) or WordPerfect 5.1 for DOS (*.doc). All recent word processing programs for Windows or Macintosh can read either of these formats. However, the conversion is sometimes not perfect and any formatting Word cannot convert will be discarded. See Can Word open WordPerfect files? for some related information.
I like WordPerfect. Where are the "Reveal Codes"?
The "Reveal Codes" as implemented in WordPerfect are nowhere to be found. [EMPHASIS]Not there; sorry ... get over it.[emphasis] See How can I diagnose formatting problems? for more information.
Can Word open WordPerfect files?
Word is usually setup to open WordPerfect 5.1 files without doing anything special. You may have to change the Files of type setting in the Open dialog box to All Files (*.*), as Word is usually set to look for Word Documents (*.doc). There are more text converters and graphics filters on the Office install CD, including one for WordPerfect 6.x (WordPerfect 6/7/8/9 use the same file format). WordPerfect files may include WordPerfect Graphics files, so you should also install the WordPerfect Graphics Filters. To install text converters and graphics filters for WordPerfect:
1. Insert your Office or Word CD #1.
2. Setup may start automatically when you insert the CD; if not, choose Start > Run > Browse (on the Windows Taskbar) then locate the CD and double-click on setup.exe.
3. Choose Add or Remove Features.If you're not familiar with the Microsoft Office install/update procedure, click the Help button before you go on to the next step and read the Help screen.
4. Open the Converters and Filters list.
5. Open the Text Converters list.
6. Choose WordPerfect 6.x Converter, and select Run from My Computer.
7. Open the Graphics Filters list.
8. Choose WordPerfect Graphics Filters, and select Run from My Computer.
9. Click on the Update Now button.
You can also install more text converters and graphics filters by choosing the items you want from the Text Converters and Graphics Filters lists before you click the Update Now button. If you want to simply install all of the available text converters and graphics filters, choose Run from My Computer at step 4 above, instead of selecting particular items from the lists.
Are there any settings that would help a WordPerfect user learn Word?
If you choose Tools from the Options menu, then click on the General tab, you can select two check boxes that will help you learn the equivalent Word commands. Help for WordPerfect users displays instructions or demonstrates a Word equivalent when you press a WordPerfect for DOS key combination. Navigation keys for WordPerfect users changes the function of Page Up, Page Down, Down Arrow, Home, End, and Esc to their WordPerfect equivalents. Note: If you did not install WordPerfect Help when you installed Word, Word will ask you for your install CD the first time you try a WordPerfect key combination.for a table of WordPerfect 5.1 to Word Keyboard Equivalents.
Note: If you are an experienced Word user, you may find Word's behavior annoying if you enable either of these features. For example, if you press the Delete key to delete a block of text, you have to confirm the delete by pressing the Y key (similar to what happens in WordPerfect when you delete a block of text).
In WordPerfect, I could point to a blank part of the page and start typing. Can Word do that?
Word calls this feature "Click and Type". All it does is automatically insert enough blank paragraphs and possibly a tab to position the insertion point, then you can start typing or insert a graphic. To use Click and Type:
1. Make sure that Click and Type is turned on: Choose Options from the Tools menu, click the Edit tab, select the Enable click and type check box, and then click OK.
2. Switch to Print Layout view or Web Layout (on the View menu or use the little toolbar in the lower left corner of the screen).
3. In the document, move the pointer to a blank area where you want to insert text, graphics, or a table.
4. Click to enable the Click and Type pointer.
5. The pointer shape indicates how the item will be aligned (left, center, or right, depending on where you place the pointer).
6. Double-click, and then start typing text or insert an item as usual.
More Word Resources

Microsoft Word Most Valuable Professionals
An indispensable resource for Word users
From Microsoft:
· Microsoft Word 95 - Word XP (2002) Product Information
· Microsoft Download Center (includes information on product updates)
Other Resources:
· Intermediate User's Guide (based on Microsoft's Legal Users Guide)
· Qwik & Dirty Task Guide (OneonOne Computer Training)
· Web Resources for Microsoft Word (a huge list!)
· Word Tips (e-mail newsletters)

Exercise 1

MEMORY ALLOCATION

In computer science, dynamic memory allocation is the allocation of memory storage for use in a computer program during the runtime of that program. It is a way of distributing ownership of limited memory resources among many pieces of data and code. Importantly, the amount of memory allocated is determined by the program at the time of allocation and need not be known in advance. A dynamic allocation exists until it is explicitly released, either by the programmer or by a garbage collector; this is notably different from automatic and static memory allocation, which require advance knowledge of the required amount of memory and have a fixed duration. It is said that an object so allocated has dynamic lifetime.

INPUT/OUTPUT PORTS

Input-output ports have a very specific behavior concerning data memory allocation in the executive generated by SynDEx. For any application, SynDEx makes data buffer allocations for (and only for) the output ports of the atomic references of your algorithm graph. Input-output ports do not cause an allocation but instead an alias on the output port of the predecessor of this input-output port. The operation containing this input-output port directly modifies the value of its predecessor port (side-effect). This is useful to avoid reallocation of big data buffers of the same type (for instances images), by making successive computations on the same data buffer. However, as side-effects are not supposed to happen in data-flow graphs, this comes with some restrictions:
ports of delay definitions cannot be input/output ports
ports of hierarchical definitions cannot be input/output ports the data of an input/output port cannot be diffused: if we have a dependence A.o -> B.io (where A.o is an output port and B.io is an input/output port), neither A.o nor B.io can be diffused

INTERNAL REGISTERS

Members of an organization’s internal register are full time staff members of the organization, who normally work on non-emergency programmies. They have to have the agreement of their manager to be on the register.
Register members receive special training to prepare them for deployments. They are expected to make themselves available for a certain amount of time each year while they remain on the register. They can be deployed very rapidly.
They are deployed for a maximum period, which has been agreed in advance with their manager. After a deployment, they return to their previous post.


INTERRUPT VECTOR

An interrupt vector is the memory address of an interrupt handler, or an index into an array called an interrupt vector table or dispatch table. Interrupt vector tables contain the memory addresses of interrupt handlers. When an interrupt is generated, the processor saves its execution state via a context switch, and begins execution of the interrupt handler at the interrupt vector.
For more information, see the entry for interrupt.

BIOS

BIOS (pronounced [ˈbaɪoʊs]), in computing, stands for Basic Input/Output System.[1] [2]
The term is incorrectly known as Binary Input/Output System, Basic Integrated Operating System and occasionally Built In Operating System for example in Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash[1].
BIOS refers to the firmware code run by an IBM compatible PC when first powered on. The primary function of the BIOS is to prepare the machine so other software programs stored on various media (such as hard drives, floppies, and CDs) can load, execute, and assume control of the PC[3]. This process is known as booting up.
BIOS can also be said to be a coded program embedded on a chip that recognizes and controls various devices that make up the PC. The term BIOS is specific to personal computer vendors. Among other classes of computers, the generic terms boot monitor, boot loader or boot ROM are commonly used. Boot is short for bootstrapping.
The term first appeared in the CP/M operating system, describing the part of CP/M loaded during boot time that interfaced directly with the hardware (CP/M machines usually had a simple boot loader in ROM, and nothing else). Most versions of DOS have a file called "IBMBIO.COM" or "IO.SYS" that is analogous to the CP/M disk BIOS.

DOS

DOS (from Disk Operating System) commonly refers to the family of closely related operating systems which dominated the IBM PC compatible market between 1981 and 1995 (or until about 2000, if Windows 9x systems are included): DR-DOS, FreeDOS, MS-DOS, Novell-DOS, OpenDOS, PC-DOS, PTS-DOS, ROM-DOS and several others. They are single user, single task systems. MS-DOS from Microsoft was the most widely used. These operating systems ran on IBM PC type hardware using the Intel x86 CPUs or their compatible cousins from other makers. MS-DOS, inspired by CP/M, is still common today and was the foundation for many of Microsoft's operating systems (from Windows 1.0 through Windows Me). MS-DOS was later abandoned as the foundation for their operating systems.

INSTRUCTION SETS

An instruction set is (a list of) all instructions, and all their variations, that a processor can execute.
Instructions include:
arithmetic such as add and subtract
logic instructions such as and, or, and not
data instructions such as move, input, output, load, and store
control flow instructions such as goto, if ... goto, call, and return.
An instruction set, or instruction set architecture (ISA), is the part of the computer architecture related to programming, including the native data types, instructions, registers, addressing modes, memory architecture, interrupt and exception handling, and external I/O. An ISA includes a specification of the set of opcodes (machine language), the native commands implemented by a particular CPU design.
Instruction set architecture is distinguished from the microarchitecture, which is the set of processor design techniques used to implement the instruction set. Computers with different microarchitectures can share a common instruction set. For example, the Intel Pentium and the AMD Athlon implement nearly identical versions of the x86 instruction set, but have radically different internal designs.
This concept can be extended to unique ISAs like TIMI (Technology-Independent Machine Interface) present in the IBM System/38 and IBM AS/400. TIMI is an ISA that is implemented as low-level software and functionally resembles what is now referred to as a virtual machine. It was designed to increase the longevity of the platform and applications written for it, allowing the entire platform to be moved to very different hardware without having to modify any software except that which comprises TIMI itself. This allowed IBM to move the AS/400 platform from an older CISC architecture to the newer POWER architecture without having to rewrite any parts of the OS or software associated with it.

DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTION

When stored in memory the bytes, words, and doublewords in the packed data types are stored in consecutive addresses, with the least significant byte, word, or doubleword being stored in the lowest address and the more significant bytes, words, or doubleword being stored at consecutively higher addresses. The ordering of bytes, words, or doublewords in memory is always little endian: the bytes with the lower addresses are less significant than the bytes with the higher addresses.

BRANCH INSTRUCTIONS

a branch instruction, can be taken or not taken: if a branch is not taken, the flow of control is unchanged and the next instruction to be executed is the instruction immediately following the current instruction in memory; if taken, the next instruction to be executed is an instruction at some other place in memory. There are two usual forms of branch instruction: a conditional branch that can be either taken or not taken, depending on a condition such as a CPU flag, and an unconditional branch which is always taken.

CONDITIONAL AND UNCONDITIONAL JUMPS

Conditional and Unconditional Jumps
Introduction
So far, we've only considered instructions that do computations, or data movement (i.e., load and store).
You can do straight-line code with these instructions. However, high level languages must be able to handle conditional statements and loops.
ISAs do not have support for block programming, nor support for traditional loops. Instead, they have support for conditional and unconditional jumps, which are essentially goto statements.
What does it mean to jump?
Perhaps you've never given much thought to it, but have you thought about what it means for the control flow of a program to "jump". Do you recall what your teacher said when you learned how an if-else statement worked? Perhaps the teacher pointed out that if a condition was true, then the control flow went into the if-body, and if the condition was false, the control flow went into the else-body.
This was probably demonstrated by pointing at some code on a board or a power point slide, or perhaps by using a debugger.
However, those jumps have to be implemented, and "jumping" is too abstract a concept.
Here's what happens. At any point in time, you are executing some instruction. This instruction appears in memory at some address. The hidden register PC (the program counter) stores the address of the instruction that's currently being executed.
When a conditional jump occurs, a condition is checked. If the condition is true, then the jump occurs. A jump means updating the PC with the instruction to execute, which in turn causes that instruction to be fetched and run. If the condition is false, then the instruction at PC + 4 is executed. PC + 4 is the address of the next instruction in memory. We add 4 instead of 1 because each address in memory stores one byte and each MIPS instruction requires four bytes of memory.
An unconditional jump always occurs. There is no conditions to check.
A conditional jump is called a branch in MIPS.
Jump instructions
We'll consider several jump instructions, and also talk about slt, which is used to implement certain branches that don't exist as instructions MIPS.
There are the list of instructions we'll look at.
beq Branches if the quantities of two registers are equal.
bne Branches if the quantities of two registers are NOT equal.
bgtz Branches if a quantity in a register is greater than zero (quantity is 32 bit, 2C).
bgez Branches if a quantity in a register is greater than or equal to zero (quantity is 32 bit, 2C).
bltz Branches if a quantity in a register is less than zero (quantity is 32 bit, 2C).
blez Branches if a quantity in a register is less than or equal to zero (quantity is 32 bit, 2C).
j Jump to an address
jr Jump to an address stored in a register
jal Jump to an address, and store the return address in a register.
jalr Jump to an address stored in a register, and store the return address in another register.
Here's how they would be written beq $rs, $rt, offsetbne $rs, $rt, offsetbgez $rs, offsetbgtz $rs, offsetblez $rs, offsetbltz $rs, offsetj offsetjal offsetjr $rsjalr $rs
The offset is a 16-bit 2C value, except for j and jal, where they are 26 bits UB. j and jal are J-type instructions, while all the branch instructions are I-type. Notice that the instruction format (e.g., R-type, I-type) are formats. Just because an instruction is used for jumping (e.g., beq) does not mean it's a J-type instruction. It's the format that matters.
Semantics of Branch instructions
The branch instructions (i.e., beq, bne, bgtz, bgez, bltz, blez) all have 16 bit immediate values.
How are these values used to compute the address to jump (should the condition be true)? Addr = PC + (IR15)14 IR15-0 00 if ( condition ) PC <- Addr else PC <- PC + 4 You don't want to use the 16 bit immediate value as an address to jump to because that limits where you can jump. MIPS has 32 bits for an address. If you only use 16 bits, you are using a very small fraction of the possible addresses. To think about a reasonable solution, ask yourself when a branch occurs in a program? They occur in loops and conditional statements. Most loops and conditional statements occur within a few statements in the code. Even if you expect that each C statement may translate into 20 or more MIPS instructions, jumps are expected to jump within several thousand instructions of the jump instruction. Therefore, it makes sense to jump relative to the current instruction. This kind of jumping is called PC relative addressing because it adds an offset to the program counter. If we do this naively, we can jump anywhere from PC - 215 to PC + 215 - 1, which is the range of values for a 16 bit 2C. However, that is naive. Instructions are 32 bits long. Thus, they are 4-byte quantities. In MIPS, 4-byte quantities must be stored at word-aligned addresses, which means those addresses must be divisible by 4. This means that we will never jump to an address that is not divisible by 4. Thus, three-fourths of all immediate values would be useless (only one-fourth of the immediate values end in 00, the other three-fourths end in 01, 10, or 11). The better idea is to realize that we want to jump to an address divisible by 4, and not store the 00 in the immediate value. This is a similar idea to the "hidden 1" used in floating point. Just think of this as the "hidden 00". In effect, the immediate value tells you how many instructions to jump forward or backwards. To compute the address of the branch instruction, take the 16 bit immediate value, and sign-extend it. Then shift it left by 2 bits (which fills in 0's for the low 2 bits). The result allows you to jump four times as far. You can jump anywhere from PC - 217 to PC + 217 - 4. Notice we subtract 4, because we multiplied the limits of the 16-bit 2C value by 4 (the limits of a 16-bit 2C values are -215 up to 215 - 1). Semantics of Jump instructions Both j and jal are J-type instructions. J-type instructions use 6 bits for the opcode, and 26 bits for the immediate value (called the target). This is the semantics of the j instruction. PC <- PC31-28 IR25-0 00 The new address is computed by taking the upper 4 bits of the PC, concatenated to the 26 bit immediate value, and the lower two bits are 00, so the address created remains word-aligned. This is called pseudo-direct addressing. Direct addressing would specify are 32 bits. It's called pseudo-direct because some bits of the PC are used to compute the address. j allows you to access 1/16 of all possible word-aligned addresses. jal and subroutines The semantics of jal are similar, except the return address is stored. R[31] <- PC + 4 PC <- PC31-28::IR25-0::00 Notice register 31 is assigned PC + 4. What is PC + 4? If PC is the current instruction, then PC + 4 is the next instruction. jal is used for subroutine calls. In a subroutine call, you jump to a subroutine (basically, it's a function call). When you are done, the subroutine jumps back to the instruction just after the subroutine call. In MIPS, jal are used for subroutine calls. How do you get back after the subroutine call? You need to store the return address. This return address is PC + 4, and is stored in $r31. When the subroutine call is finished, you run the instruction jr $r31, which causes the PC to be assigned the address in $r31. That causes the control flow to return to the instruction just after the return call. CISC processors often have very few registers. Instead of storing the return address in a register, the return address was often stored on the stack, in memory. Storing it in a register has the advantage that it's quick. Memory is much slower by comparison. Of course, you may wonder what happens if a jal call is made while in a subroutine. Won't the return address be overwritten with a new return address? That's true. In this case, you must place the return address onto the stack. Using the register helps delay the use of the stack, somewhat. If you have many leaf procedures (functions/subroutines that do not call any other subroutines), then saving the return address in a register offers speed improvements. It's Really PC + 8 It turns out that the return address is PC + 8, not PC + 4. This is most likely due to the fact that jump instructions have to be followed by a branch delay slot instruction. Such instructions are often placed after jumps and branches for the purposes of avoiding stalling in pipelines. Since pipelining is an advanced topic, we'll assume the return address is PC + 4.. Jumping to Arbitrary Word-Aligned Addresses Even though j and jal are both useful, they still don't allow you to access all possible word-aligned addresses. You need instructions that let you do this. So there is jr and jalr. Instead of specifying the address to jump to in the instruction, you refer to a register, which specifies the entire 32 bit instruction. Since registers have to be specified, jr and jalr are not J-type instructions. They are R-type. This is unusual because they could be I-type. However, by making them R-type, you can use more of the function bits. The semantics of jr $rs is: PC <- R[s] The semantics of jalr $rs is: R[31] <- PC + 4 PC <- R[s] Branch Instructions and Labels Consider the following set of instructions: beq $r1, $r2, L1 # (0) If R[1] == R[2] goto L1 addi $r1, $r1, 1 # (1) R[1]++ addi $r2, $r2, 1 # (2) R[2]++L1: add $r1, $r1, $r2 # (3) R[1] = R[1] + R[2] L1 is a label. Labels refer to addresses. These addresses are computed by the assembler. An assembler is a program that converts an assembly language code to machine code. Labels make it easier for the ISA programmer to write programs. That way, they don't have to compute the offsets. The assembler computes the offset in the following way. Instead of using the current instruction, it computes target instruction - (branch instruction + 1). For example, let branch instruction be instruction 0 (it's in parentheses in the comments above). The target instruction is where L1 appears. It's at instruction 3. So, subtract 3 - 1 = 2. The offset is +2. The same rule applies even if you branch backwards. L1: add $r1, $r1, $r2 # (0) R[1] = R[1] + R[2] addi $r1, $r1, 1 # (1) R[1]++ addi $r2, $r2, 1 # (2) R[2]++ beq $r1, $r2, L1 # (3) If R[1] == R[2] goto L1 In this case, the branch instruction is instruction 3. The target instruction (where L1 is) is instruction 0. So (0 - (3 + 1)) = -4. The offset is -4. This would be converted to 16 bit 2C, and stored in the immediate part of the instruction. You might wonder why compute branch instruction + 1. Why not just the branch instruction? Once the instruction is fetched, PC is often incremented to PC + 4, the next instruction in memory, in anticipation of the next instruction to be fetched. So, it's easier to do the computation with PC + 4 (which is the same as branch instruction + 1). You may also wonder how I numbered the instructions. How did I decide a certain instruction was instruction 0? It turns out it doesn't matter. Pick any number you want: L1: add $r1, $r1, $r2 # (21) R[1] = R[1] + R[2] addi $r1, $r1, 1 # (22) R[1]++ addi $r2, $r2, 1 # (23) R[2]++ beq $r1, $r2, L1 # (24) If R[1] == R[2] goto L1 Instead of making the first instruction, instruction 0, I made it instruction 21. If you do the computations, you get (21 - (24 + 1)) = -4. Recall these computations compute differences, and so as long as the instructions are numbered in ascending order, you get the same result, regardless of what instruction number you start with. This kind of address computation is called PC-relative since it is computed based on the value of PC, the program counter. Jump Instructions and Labels Jump instructions also jump to labels (at least, j and jal). The assembler also figures out the appropriate addresses. However, it does so using pseudo-direct addressing. Pseudo-direct addressing has one disadvantage compared to PC-relative addressing. It's harder to relocate the code. Relocating the code means to place code at a different address in memory. Typically, a loader program would have to rewrite instructions that use direct addressing because the instruction it jumps to might not be in a particular location in memory (since the program has been relocated). This is similar to informing various institutions that you have moved. You tell them the new address so they don't mail you stuff to your old address. Similarly, if a program is loaded at a different address than the assembler expected, then instructions like j and jal, which are pseudo-direct may need to be updated. PC-relative instructions like beq do not need this, since relative addressing works at any location in memory. These days, with virtual memory, it's not so necessary to relocate code. Virtual memory will be covered at some future set of notes. Machine Code Representation Branch instructions are I-type. Instruction B31-26 B25-21 B20-16 B15-0 opcode register s register t immediate beq $rt, $rs,
000 100
-
-
offset
bne $rt, $rs,
000 101
-
-
offset
bgtz $rs,
000 111
-
00000
offset
bgez $rs,
000 001 (REGIMM)
-
00001 (BGEZ)
offset
bltz $rs,
000 001 (REGIMM)
-
00000 (BLTZ)
offset
blez $rs,
000 110
-
00000
offset
The dashes are 5-bit encoding of the register number in UB. For example, $r7 is encoded as 00111. The offset is represented in 16-bit 2C.
If you look at bgtz, bgez, bltz, and blez, they're all unusual. For example, bgtz and blez are I-type instructions, where B20-16, which are the bits normally used by $rt, are all 0's (otherwise the instruction is invalid).
bltz and bgez use a special 000 001 opcode for register immediate. For this unsual use of I-type instructions, bits B20-16, which are the bits normally used by $rt, are used like the function bits in R-type instructions.
jr and jalr are R-type instructions.
Instruction
B31-26
B25-21
B20-16
B15-11
B10-6
B5-0

opcode
register s
register t
register d
shift amount
function
jr $rs
000 000 (SPECIAL)
-
00000
00000
00000
001 000
jalr $rs
000 000 (SPECIAL)
-
00000
11111
00000
100 010
You will notice that bits B15-11 are set to all 1's, which refers to register 31. As it turns out, jalr can take an optional second argument, where you specify the return address register. When it's not specified, the assembler fills in 11111 into those bits. This option is not available for jr (since no return addresses are used).
Finally, both j and jal are J-type instructions.
Instruction
B31-26
B25-0

opcode
target
j
000 010
-
jal
000 011
-
The dashes are the 26-bit target, which uses pseudo-direct addressing.

LOOPING INSTRUCTIONS

1. A method of processing loop instructions using a data processing device having a central processing unit (CPU) and a coprocessor, wherein the CPU fetches and predecodes instructions retrieved from program memory and determines whether the instructions are CPU-type or coprocessor-type, comprising the steps of: decoding the coprocessor-type instructions by the coprocessor and if a loop operation is decoded, retrieving from the program memory the instructions within the loop; storing the retrieved instructions within the loop in a loop buffer: executing at least one coprocessor-type instruction from the loop buffer by the coprocessor, and forwarding any CPU-type instructions from the loop buffer to the CPU for execution; and inhibiting instruction fetch from the program memory while instructions within the loop are executed in a subsequent iteration of the loop. 2. The method of claim 1, further including the step of accessing the instructions within the loop from the loop buffer in a subsequent iteration of the loop. 3. The method of claim 1, further including determining a backward branch distance for use by the CPU to control branching to and from the loop. 4. The method of claim 1 further including the steps of: determining from the loop instruction a number of iterations of the loop operation; decrementing by the coprocessor the number of iterations upon completion of each loop; and signaling to the CPU the completion of the loop operation when reaching the end of the number of iterations. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said storing step includes storing 'n' loop instructions in 'm' registers of the loop buffer and addressing the 'm' registers by log2m in least significant bits (LSBs) of a program counter which is also used for addressing the program memory, wherein n or m is any natural number and n is less than or equal to m. 6. The method of claim 5, further including the steps of accessing the instructions stored in the loop buffer through a multiplexer and controlling the multiplexer output by the log2m LSBs of the program counter. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein a first instruction within the loop is stored in one of the m registers addressed by the LSBs of the program counter. 8. The method of claim 1, further including the steps of signaling the presence or absence of an active loop instruction by a loop buffer flag in each of the 'm' registers in the loop buffer, the presence of an active instruction in a register is indicated by a preassigned signal in the loop buffer flag. 9. The method of claim 8, further including the step of accessing each flag in the loop buffer by log2m least significant bits of a program counter used for addressing the program memory. 10. The method of claim 8, further including the step of multiplexing an instruction from the loop buffer and the program memory, the multiplexing is dependent upon a presence of an active instruction signal from a loop buffer flag. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein said step of inhibiting instruction fetch from the program memory includes sending an inhibit signal to the program memory when the preassigned signal in the loop buffer flag is read and indicates the presence of an active loop instruction. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the preassigned signal in each of said loop buffers is selectively alterable by the CPU independent of the presence or absence of an active instruction in corresponding registers. 13. The method of claim 8, further including the step of clearing the loop buffer flag when the loop operation is completed. 14. A data processing device comprising: a central processing unit (CPU) for fetching instructions from a program memory, predecoding the instructions and sending a signal (CCLK) to a coprocessor if a coprocessor-type instruction is decoded; a coprocessor for decoding the coprocessor-type instructions upon receipt of the signal (CCLK); and a loop buffer for receiving from the program memory instructions within a loop and storing the instructions within the loop when the coprocessor decodes a loop operation from the coprocessor-type instructions, wherein the instructions within the loop are retrieved from the loop buffer for execution in a subsequent iteration of the loop, and wherein the loop buffer instructions of coprocessor-type are executed by the coprocessor and the loop buffer instructions of CPU-type are forwarded to the CPU for execution. 15. The device of claim 14, wherein a disable signal is sent to the program memory for inhibiting access of the program memory while the instructions within the loop are retrieved from the loop buffer. 16. The device of claim 14, wherein the loop buffer includes 'm' registers, each having a corresponding loop buffer flag for indicating whether the corresponding register is filled with an instruction. 17. The device of claim 16, wherein the loop buffer flags are accessed by log2m least significant bits of a program counter used for addressing the program memory. 18. The device of claim 16, wherein a program memory inhibit signal is generated based on a signal read from the loop buffer flag. 19. The device of claim 14, wherein the loop buffer includes 'm' registers and the registers are addressed by log2m LSBs of a program counter used for addressing the program memory. 20. The device of claim 16, further including a multiplexer for multiplexing between the instructions retrieved from the program memory and the instructions retrieved from the loop buffer, the multiplexor being controlled by signals read from the loop buffer flags. 21. The device of claim 14, wherein the coprocessor decodes from a loop instruction a loop block size and a number of iterations of looping, and calculates a backward branch distance for use by the CPU to control branching to and from the loop. 22. The device of claim 21, wherein the backward branch distance is the loop block size minus one. 23. A data processing device comprising: a central processing unit (CPU) for fetching instructions from a program memory, predecoding the instructions and sending a signal (CCLK) to a coprocessor if a coprocessor-type instruction is decoded; a coprocessor for decoding the coprocessor-type instructions upon receipt of the signal (CCLK); and a loop buffer for receiving from the program memory instructions within a loop and storing the instructions within the loop when the coprocessor decodes a loop operation from the coprocessor-type instructions, wherein the instructions within the loop are retrieved from the loop buffer for execution in a subsequent iteration of the loop, wherein the loop buffer instructions of coprocessor-type are executed by the coprocessor and the loop buffer instructions of CPU-type are forwarded to the CPU for execution, and wherein a disable signal is sent to the program memory for inhibiting access of the program memory while the instructions within the loop are retrieved from the loop buffer.

ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS

ARITHMETIC INSTRUTIONS
Add
Mnemonic

A
Description
The basic purpose of this instruction is to add two 16-bit operands. One of the operands must first be loaded into the accumulator, such as by means of execution of a load-accumulator instruction. The add instruction then provides the address of the other operand, which must be in main storage. Addition takes place, and the result is placed in the accumulator:

(Sign bit 0 = 0 specifies + number.) 0 000 0000 1001 1101 = Contents of accumulator+0 000 0010 0011 0101 = Contents of storage location addressed by add instruction 0 000 0010 1101 0010 = Result loaded into accumulator

Although the result replaces the contents of the accumulator, the contents of the addressed storage location remain unchanged.
The result of the addition is either positive or negative, depending upon the magnitude of the values used and whether the signs of the two operands are the same:
+ plus a + = + - plus a - = - + plus a - = sign of the larger operand - plus a + = sign of the larger operand
The value in the accumulator is positive if the leftmost bit is at a value of 0; the value in the accumulator is negative if the leftmost bit is at a value of 1. Negative numbers are in two's-complement form.
There are no addressing exceptions for the add instruction; all forms of addressing that are described under "Effective-Address Generation" apply to the A instruction.

Indicators: The carry indicator is automatically reset to 0 at the beginning of an add-instruction execution. If, during the add-instruction execution, a carry-out of the high-order (leftmost) position of the accumulator occurs, then the carry indicator is set to 1; if no such carry-out of the high-order position occurs, the carry indicator remains at its reset condition of 0. It can subsequently be set or reset by the various actions listed under "Carry and Overflow Indicators" (see Figure 13).
The overflow indicator must be reset to 0 if it is to be used during execution of an add instruction. If the overflow indicator is at a value of 1 at the start of an add operation, it is not changed regardless of the result of the add operation. If the overflow indicator is at a value of zero at the start of an add operation, it is set to a value of 1 if the addition produces a result that exceeds the capacity of the accumulator. For example, when the following two 16-bit operands are added together, S 0 100 0000 0000 0000 Operand in accumulator -- a positive number+0 100 0000 0000 0000 Operand in main storage -- a positive number 1 000 0000 0000 0000 = Result in accumulator -- a negative number(S = Sign bit)
the result is greater than the capacity of the accumulator because the accumulator specifies a negative result (the leftmost bit is at a value of 1). In this case, the overflow indicator is set to 1. The carry indicator, however, is not set to one because a carry-out of the high-order position of the accumulator does not occur. Refer to "Carry and Overflow Indicators" for a discussion of how these two indicators can be used together in certain arithmetic operations.
The maximum capacity of the accumulator is:
Power-of-2 Notation
Decimal Notation
Hexadecimal Notation
+215-1
+32,767
+7FFF
-215
-32,768
-8000

Examples
Add
Assembler Language Coding
Hexadecimal Value
Description of Instruction
Label

Operation

F
T


21
25

27
30

32
33

35..40..


A




DISP
80XX
Add contents of CSL at EA (I+DISP) to A


A


1

DISP
81XX
Add contents of CSL at EA (XR1+DISP) to A


A


2

DISP
82XX
Add contents of CSL at EA (XR2+DISP) to A


A


3

DISP
83XX
Add contents of CSL at EA (XR3+DISP) to A


A

L


ADDR
8400XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (Addr) to A


A

L
1

ADDR
8500XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (Addr+XR1) to A


A

L
2

ADDR
8600XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (Addr+XR2) to A


A

L
3

ADDR
8700XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (Addr+XR3) to A


A

I


ADDR
8480XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (V in CSL at Addr) to A


A

I
1

ADDR
8580XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (V in CSL at "Addr+XR1") to A


A

I
2

ADDR
8680XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (V in CSL at "Addr+XR2") to A


A

I
3

ADDR
8780XXXX
Add contents of CSL at EA (V in CSL at "Addr+XR3") to A